Introduction: Reconstructing Trust, A New Paradigm of Computation

Within the context of Web3, "trustless" has long been a core tenet of system design. Decentralization, permissionlessness, and censorship resistance form the trust architecture of the crypto world. However, real-world blockchain systems have not entirely eliminated trust. There remains a need to trust the honest execution of nodes, the reliability of oracle data, the absence of vulnerabilities in code, and the validity proofs provided by Layer 2 solutions.

In other words, Web3 has not eradicated trust but rather reconfigured its object: shifting from individuals to technology, from centralized institutions to verifiable computational pathways. In this report, CoinEx Research will analyze the practical logic and path selection of "trustlessness," turning its attention to Arweave and its newly proposed AO. We aim to consider, from the perspective of data to execution, whether a simpler, more fundamental, and more trustworthy computational paradigm exists.

The Compromising Logic of Existing Decentralized Computing Paths

Current mainstream decentralized computing paths—whether conventional EVMs, Layer 2 solutions, or modular blockchain designs—all strive to overcome the "scalability bottleneck." However, they inevitably face trade-offs among scalability, verifiability, and decentralization.

The Efficiency and Generality Dilemma of the EVM

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) laid the foundation for decentralized computing, providing a Turing-complete execution environment for smart contracts. However, the EVM's "replicated execution" model, while enhancing system verifiability, severely limits efficiency. When dealing with complex logic or large-scale data, the EVM faces high gas costs and performance bottlenecks, making it difficult to support general-purpose computing or high-performance decentralized applications (DApps).

The Scaling Approach of Layer 2 and Rollups

To alleviate the computational burden on Layer 1, Layer 2 technologies such as Rollups have emerged. They significantly increase throughput and reduce gas costs without compromising security by migrating most computational tasks off-chain and submitting only compressed transaction data and corresponding proofs to Layer 1. Nevertheless, these systems often rely on centralized sequencers and complex proof mechanisms, still introducing trust assumptions to some extent.

The Deconstruction Attempt of Modular Blockchains

Modular blockchains represent another emerging solution aimed at enhancing scalability. Projects like Celestia achieve a more flexible system architecture by decoupling execution, consensus, and data availability into independent modules. This paradigm attempts to break the scalability limitations of monolithic blockchains, providing infrastructure support for diverse execution environments. However, in the current stage, the execution layers of most modular blockchains still rely on relatively centralized operating models or face bottlenecks in performance and ecosystem maturity, not yet fully realizing the ideal balance of "modularity + decentralization."

The Universal Trade-off Under the Trilemma

Overall, existing decentralized computing paths face a core challenge: the inability to simultaneously optimize scalability, decentralization, and verifiability. Under current technological constraints, most solutions must compromise on two of these dimensions to improve the third. This implies that:

To expand throughput, more off-chain logic or centralized components may need to be introduced.
To ensure verification transparency, system complexity or performance may be limited.
To maintain decentralization, certain efficiency-enhancing measures may have to be put aside.

How to strike a dynamic balance among these three will be a key issue for the continuous evolution of decentralized computing paths in the future.

Arweave + AO's New Idea: A Trustless Execution Environment?

In traditional on-chain computing models, whether it's the EVM, Rollups, or modular blockchains, there's always a reliance on some degree of "trusted computing entity." In contrast, Arweave and its AO are exploring a new path that is structurally more flexible, has fewer dependencies, and is trustless.

Arweave: The Computational Cornerstone of On-Chain Memory

Arweave provides a "permanently available" data storage layer. Its design, based on the SPoRA (Succinct Proofs of Random Access) consensus mechanism, ensures that historical data is not only stored long-term but can also be efficiently verified. This layer provides a rare set of features for decentralized computing: data persistence, censorship resistance, and verifiability, forming the foundation of "on-chain memory".

In traditional blockchains, state is often a "current snapshot," while Arweave preserves the complete event trajectory from the beginning to the present. This paves the way for event-driven computing models.

AO: A Decentralized Attempt at Actor-Based Computation

Built on top of Arweave, AO adopts a decentralized execution architecture similar to the Actor model. Each Unit is an independent Actor that communicates and is activated through asynchronous messages. Unlike Ethereum's approach of maintaining a global state, AO employs an Event Sourcing model, where all state dynamically evolves from historical messages. This model makes the state itself reconstructible and verifiable.

AO's execution architecture has the following key features:

High Parallelism: Asynchronous message-driven, Processes do not block each other, naturally supporting large-scale concurrency.

Modularity and Flexibility: Each Process can customize its runtime environment without being tied to a single virtual machine architecture.

No Need for Layer 2 / zk Scaling Layers: Message sequencing and execution are orchestrated by underlying Schedulers, without relying on external proof mechanisms.

Decentralized Scheduling Paths: Schedulers manage task ordering through a competition mechanism, and users can choose "trust paths" based on reputation systems to avoid centralized bottlenecks.

In other words, AO's trust mechanism is not about "proving I didn't do evil" but rather "every step is reproducible." It transforms "trustlessness" from cryptographic proofs to an execution model of "verifiable history + transparent path."

Reconstructing Verification and Consensus: How Does AO Achieve "Verification as Trust"?

AO's fundamental innovation lies in shifting the core consensus logic of blockchain from "global state consistency" to "verifiable state evolution based on message chains". In this architecture, consensus no longer relies on a "single truth" that all nodes must agree upon but empowers each user with the ability to independently verify the computation process.

All state changes of each AO Process can be replayed and verified through its historical message records (stored by Arweave). Anyone can re-execute these messages based on the Process's own logic to verify the consistency of its state. This is similar to the "lazy computation" paradigm, where the system itself does not pursue real-time consensus but rather verifiable finality.

Furthermore, AO supports "multi-scheduler parallel verification": users can submit the same message to multiple schedulers, with different execution paths returning computation results. Trustworthy output is built through cross-verification. This mechanism not only enhances system robustness but can also introduce more refined error correction processes through "challenge windows" in the future. Any user can raise a challenge within a certain period after the computation is completed, and if successful, the computation will be rolled back, and the executor (CU) will be penalized.

This marks the birth of a new computational trust model: trust is established not by reaching consensus on state but through the verifiability of the path. This is precisely what AO defines as "verification as trust."

Challenges and Prospects: AO's Open Questions

Despite the compelling design principles of AO, its implementation still faces various challenges.

Performance Issues: Whether the asynchronous architecture can support high-frequency scenarios, such as transaction matching or real-time feedback applications, still requires empirical validation.

Scheduler Mechanism: How to prevent spam message attacks, maintain fairness, and balance incentive mechanisms are crucial issues for decentralized scheduling.

Storage Bandwidth: High-concurrency message flows may put pressure on Arweave's write capacity, affecting system stability.

Development Ecosystem: The Actor model requires a different mental model for developers, and the current toolchain is still in its early stages, lacking sufficient frameworks and standardized interfaces.

Cross-Chain Collaboration: How to interact with mainstream ecosystems like the EVM, whether to build cross-chain bridges or Rollup-like paths, is critical for future ecosystem expansion.

Consensus Security: The scheduler layer's resistance to Sybil attacks, DoS protection mechanisms, and the design of economic incentive models all affect the system's security lower bound.

These issues are not insurmountable, but their resolution will determine whether AO remains a theoretical discussion or can truly become a breakthrough in general-purpose decentralized computing.

Conclusion: From "Trustless" to "Trusted Reconstruction" - A Paradigm Shift in Computation

The Web3 world has never truly achieved "zero trust." The so-called trustless is more of a reconstruction of trust—shifting from trust in individuals to trust in code, paths, and verification mechanisms. The new architecture built by Arweave and AO, seemingly a "trustless" decentralized execution environment, is essentially a comprehensive awakening of user verification capabilities. It abandons the reliance on global state seen in traditional blockchains like Ethereum, replacing it with an Actor-based architecture + event chain tracing, attempting to forge a new technological path: lightweight, scalable, verifiable, and permissionless.

CoinEx Research believes that true "trustlessness" is not about eliminating trust but about making the process of establishing trust more free, transparent, and disintermediated. The potential offered by AO empowers every user, enabling them to no longer rely on "post-consensus truth" but to personally verify the "process of computation." If this path is successful, the future of decentralized computing will no longer be limited by the burden of consensus but will move towards a truly free and trustworthy computing network.

Rethinking Trustless Computing with AO and Arweave